International Affairs No. 6, 2022 – Table of Contents

ON JUNE 29, 2022, Ashgabat hosted an important international event – the Sixth Caspian Summit. In this regard, I believe it is important to once again consider the role and place of the Caspian Region in the more just, democratic, and sustainable multipolar system that is taking shape today.

The importance of the Caspian Region for the Russian Federation is determined by its strategic location in the center of Eurasia at the crossroads of the continent’s transport and energy routes, its vast reserves of mineral and biological resources, and the intertwining of the local cultures that coexist here…

Keywords: crisis of world civilization, structural crisis of Western capitalism, liberal democracy, transformation of the world order

SCHOLARS began to react to the rapid transformation of the world order at the first signs that the US was losing its supposedly indisputable global leadership.¹ The main reason for the revision of the unipolarity of the world order was not so much the US’s loss of its economic, military, and political superiority as the fact that Francis Fukuyama’s declared “end of history,” pursued by the US after World War II, never materialized. Numerous publications emerged noting the decline of the Western liberal democratic model of social development…

AT THE OPENING CEREMONY of the 21st Nigeria Oil and Gas (NOG) Conference and Exhibition in Abuja, Nigeria, on July 5, 2022, then-secretary general of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Mohammad Sanusi Barkindo deplored the current alarming situation in the world oil and gas market. “Our industry is now facing huge challenges along multiple fronts, and these threaten our investment potential now and in the longer term. To put it bluntly, the oil and gas industry is under siege!”¹ he said.

“The evolving geopolitical developments in Eastern Europe, the ongoing war in Ukraine, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and inflationary pressures across the globe have come together in a perfect storm that is causing significant volatility and uncertainty in the commodity markets and, more importantly, in the world of energy,” Barkindo said in the same speech…

AT THE OPENING CEREMONY of the 21st Nigeria Oil and Gas (NOG) Conference and Exhibition in Abuja, Nigeria, on July 5, 2022, then-secretary general of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Mohammad Sanusi Barkindo deplored the current alarming situation in the world oil and gas market. “Our industry is now facing huge challenges along multiple fronts, and these threaten our investment potential now and in the longer term. To put it bluntly, the oil and gas industry is under siege!”¹ he said.

“The evolving geopolitical developments in Eastern Europe, the ongoing war in Ukraine, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and inflationary pressures across the globe have come together in a perfect storm that is causing significant volatility and uncertainty in the commodity markets and, more importantly, in the world of energy,” Barkindo said in the same speech…

INFORMATION and communication technologies (ICTs) are becoming key tools of international influence for nations. Geopolitical rivalry has largely shifted to the ICT realm. A nation’s level of digitalization now ranks alongside its economic, political, and military strength as a determinant of its international status.

Amid growing challenges and threats stemming from the abuse of ICTs, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the UN, plays a decisive role in international cooperation in the development of digital technologies: It distributes radio frequencies, assigns satellite orbits, develops technical standards, facilitates access to ICTs for various countries, and helps developing countries acquire and manage ICTs…

ON MAY 19-21, 2022, the 13th International Economic Summit “Russia-Islamic World: Kazan Summit 2022” and a meeting of the “Russia – Islamic World” Strategic Vision Group (SVG) took place in the Republic of Tatarstan. These events were made all the more significant by the widespread celebration in Russia of the 1,100th anniversary of the official adoption of Islam by the peoples of Volga Bulgaria.

The main reference point for reports and discussions at the forum were ideas contained in the messages of greetings to attendees from Russian President Vladimir Putin, Federation Council Chairwoman Valentina Matviyenko, and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov, as well as their warm congratulations on the 1,100th anniversary of the official adoption of Islam by the peoples of Volga Bulgaria, an important event for the Islamic Ummah of Russia, which has become an organic and inalienable part of Russian civilization…

Keywords: truth, patriotism, national self-awareness, foreign policy principles, national exclusiveness, messianism

TODAY, amid events unfolding in and around Ukraine that are pivotal to Russia and the entire world order, we hear more and more that “our strength is in truth” and “our cause is just.” They are pronounced as a given, as something that requires no explanation, because they are part of our spiritual code. Today, we increasingly hear that Russia needs a national idea. The fact that the ideas of truth, a just cause, and patriotism resonate in our minds much louder during critical periods of Russia’s history requires no explanation. This happened on the fateful day of June 22, 1941: “Our cause is just. The enemy will be defeated. Victory will be ours!”…

Keywords: Russophobia, Russian-British interimperial animosity, the Great Game, rational and unconscious in the West’s perception of Russia, mass social psychoses, clash of civilizations

NEVER BEFORE has the term “Russophobia” been as widely and routinely used as it is today. Emerging in Europe in the 1830s, it denoted a phenomenon much older than itself. Strictly speaking, there was and is nothing phenomenal about this phenomenon in its traditional understanding as a special dislike for Russia and Russians. It just so happens that there is no love between states and peoples because this is unnatural for them and has no grounds. To compete, fight, ally, cooperate, trade, borrow, envy, despise, hate – anything but to love…

Keywords: Great Britain, once the biggest colonial power, decolonization, colonial crimes, UNGA, the British Empire, ECHR, Pax Britannica, Victoria and Albert Museum

GREAT BRITAIN, once the biggest colonial power, steadily expanded by way of the natural resources of its controlled possessions, the export of their cultural values, and the slave trade. The empire’s political and economic vibrancy required strong moral “tenets” that led to the formation of a hypocritical ideology – an alloy of cynical prosperity on the “bones” of enslaved peoples, enlightening messianism, and the heavy “white man’s burden” as an alleged source of progress for the rest of the world. Colonialism was and remains, to an extent, a factor of national pride, a combination of imagined racial-ethnic exceptionalism and a condescending attitude toward others. Hence the more or less widely accepted opinion among Britons that the demands, especially of India and Pakistan, that Great Britain repent for the sins of the colonial past are untenable, since under imperial patronage, these countries enjoyed all the boons of civilization, democracy, and free trade…

SINCE the start of 2022, the United States of America has been swept by waves of massive domestic political upheavals, compounded by the threat of an economic crisis – the second in just three years. These waves have pushed into the background and obscured the human-made causes of these upheavals, which stem from the fatal mistakes and miscalculations of the US political elite.

In this sense, public surveys provide telling data that speak for themselves. Public opinion polls on the most pressing issues for Americans (as of summer 2022) showed that inflation and the rapid rise of the cost of living were at the top of the list – with 18% of respondents sharing this view. But it is extremely significant that coming in second with a similar share of respondents, also at 18%, was dissatisfaction with the weak political leadership of the US, including the ineffectual work of the state apparatus at its highest, federal level…

SHORTLY before US House Speaker Nancy Pelosi’s provocative visit to Taiwan in August 2022, Chinese Communist Party General Secretary Xi Jinping called for more intensive work with patriotic elements in Taiwan and abroad, including the Chinese diaspora in the US. This means that, along with military and economic measures, China is planning to make more use of its secret weapon, Chinese Americans, to lobby its interests in the US.

There was a dramatic worldwide increase in population migration around the turn of the 21st century due to globalization. On one hand, emigration deprives a country of talent, workers, and taxpayers. On the other, immigrants may form a growing diaspora in a host country with which the government of their native land can maintain close ties and use to advance its interests. The Chinese diaspora in the US is a good example…

A section of this issue of International Affairs is devoted to an important anniversary – namely, the 30th anniversary of diplomatic relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan.

I am sure that we have something to show the Russian and Kazakh public. Over the past three decades, through our joint efforts we have not only preserved but also strengthened the centuries-old bonds of friendship and good-neighborliness that bind our peoples together, and on this foundation we have built a robust model of interstate interaction in all areas of bilateral cooperation, as well as at various multilateral platforms and institutions…

OCTOBER 2022 marks the 30th anniversary of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation.

Our interaction has been successfully developing since May 25, 1992, when the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance between Kazakhstan and Russia was signed. The document stated that strengthening strategic partnership between the two neighboring countries is in the fundamental national interests of both nations. For its part, the 2013 Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Alliance in the 21st Century defines prospects for expanding bilateral relations in the next several decades…

“We have allied relations with Kazakhstan, one might say fraternal.” – Russian President Vladimir Putin, speaking at a plenary session of the 25th St. Petersburg International Economic Forum, June 17, 2022.

“Friendship between our countries should be absolutely permanent, one might say eternal.” – Kazakh President Kasym-Zhomart Tokayev, speaking in an interview with Russia 24 television aired on June 15, 2022…

IN 2022, we are celebrating the 30th anniversary of diplomatic relations between Russia and Kazakhstan, which undoubtedly opens a new page in the history of our bilateral relations. Over these years, we have managed to reach a level of strategic partnership and alliance based on a solid foundation of friendship between peoples, mutual trust, and respect for each other’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. Given our long border, geographical proximity, and common past, the interests of the two countries intertwine in an exceptional way that is virtually unparalleled in the entire post-Soviet space.

During the political turbulence of the 1990s, our states realized early on that breaking trade, economic, and historical cultural ties would be a dead end, and they developed their own algorithm for maintaining bridges between our peoples. This approach made it possible to create the solid platform on which our entire cooperation rests today…

INTERREGIONAL and cross-border ties between Russia and Kazakhstan are an important component of bilateral relations and objectively help expand their multilateral cooperation. Currently, 76 of Russia’s 85 federal subjects are successfully developing ties with Kazakh partners. Contacts between twin cities are actively maintained. Considering that Russia and Kazakhstan have the longest land border in the world, this area has acquired strategic importance, which is in the long-term national interests of the two countries.

Economic cooperation has become a central factor of interaction, with special emphasis placed on the industrial cooperation of enterprises in border territories and other regions of Russia and Kazakhstan. This is considered an urgent task of the economic integration of the two countries, as well as a significant factor in increasing the competitiveness of national businesses in global markets. The development of this type of cooperation is significantly influenced not only by the interests of its participants, but also by the qualitative changes that have occurred since the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union…

INTERREGIONAL and cross-border ties between Russia and Kazakhstan are an important component of bilateral relations and objectively help expand their multilateral cooperation. Currently, 76 of Russia’s 85 federal subjects are successfully developing ties with Kazakh partners. Contacts between twin cities are actively maintained. Considering that Russia and Kazakhstan have the longest land border in the world, this area has acquired strategic importance, which is in the long-term national interests of the two countries.

Economic cooperation has become a central factor of interaction, with special emphasis placed on the industrial cooperation of enterprises in border territories and other regions of Russia and Kazakhstan. This is considered an urgent task of the economic integration of the two countries, as well as a significant factor in increasing the competitiveness of national businesses in global markets. The development of this type of cooperation is significantly influenced not only by the interests of its participants, but also by the qualitative changes that have occurred since the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union…

Keywords: international mosaic, world politics, confrontation, multipolarity, West, Ukraine, special military operation, Crimea, New START, AUKUS, BRICS

Armen Oganesyan, Editor-in-Chief, International Affairs: Sergey Alekseyevich [Ryabkov], do you see in the near future a world split into two camps: the West vs. the non-West? It seems that world politics is moving toward a state of confrontation and a searching for partners for each center of power. In this regard, what model of international relations is Russia offering the world today?…

Armen Oganesyan, Editor-in-Chief of International Affairs: Mikhail Gennadyevich [Delyagin], what kind of economy does Russia need today?

Mikhail Delyagin: We are still implementing the policy pursued by Yegor Gaidar and Anatoly Chubais in 1992, and like it or not, this economic model has run out of steam. We need a different model, a planned economy, because when you produce something more complex than bows and arrows, you have to plan your activities. This can be called strategic planning, programming, or forecasting – all of these are essentially the same. Normal strategic planning, which is found in all developed countries of the world, including Israel, is absolutely necessary for the survival not only of the Russian Federation, but also of Russian culture and Russian civilization. The mobilization economy has been best described by First Deputy Prime Minister Andrey Belousov, who said that it provides for two things: first, a concentration of resources to achieve key priorities; and second, the highest degree of responsibility of public officials. I believe there are no objections to either of these…

Alexander Gasyuk, Rossiyskaya gazeta correspondent in Cyprus: Russia-Cyprus relations have traditionally been friendly and always been marked by a high level of mutual trust. What is the current state of relations between our countries in the context of today’s international challenges, considering that Nicosia has joined the unprecedented EU sanctions against Russia?

Stanislav Osadchy: Yes, you’re right. Relations between Russiaand Cyprus have always been built on equal and mutually beneficial cooperation that until recently had ensured their steady development. Unfortunately, after the start of [Russia’s] special military operation [in Ukraine], the Republic of Cyprus did not find the strength to resist the EU’s unconstructive anti-Russian sanctions, which are negatively affecting the socioeconomic situation of the island. In fact, the successes achieved in recent years in strengthening the mutual legal framework and boosting business, financial, tourist, and humanitarian exchanges have been largely undermined…

Your talent, expertise and professionalism have enabled you to climb the career ladder, reaching the highest possible positions and emerging as an unquestioned authority on Russian foreign policy. As Russian first deputy foreign minister, our state representative to the UN, and ambassador to Egypt and China, you protected the most important flanks, fostering international relations at multilateral and bilateral levels, and attracting partners and allies to our side.

Dear Andrey Ivanovich, we are grateful to you for your years-long friendship with our journal. We will always remember the helping hand that was extended to us during the “time of troubles.” We are looking forward to your new articles for our journal, which are always welcome…

SOVIET Ambassador in Kabul Konstantin Mikhailov learned about the perfidious attack of fascist Germany on the USSR of June 22, 1941, and the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War while on an official trip to the northern provinces of Afghanistan. He returned to the Afghan capital the same day.

Early in the morning of June 23, 1941, the head of the Soviet diplomatic mission in Kabul was received by Ali Mohammad Khan, the foreign minister of Afghanistan. It was a very personal meeting, without interpreters. Mikhailov informed the minister about the events on the Soviet-German front and about the radio speech of Soviet People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov. The foreign minister of Afghanistan made a general statement about the peaceful nature of Soviet foreign policy and assessed Germany’s attack as provocative and aggressive. The private nature of this confidential meeting allowed the Soviet ambassador to conclude that the ruling Nadir dynasty would not be quick to announce their country’s neutrality in the military confrontation between the Soviet Union and fascist Germany [1]…

Keywords: Soviet Union, China, Manchuria, Xinjiang, People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (NKID), embassy, consulate, diplomatic service

AS THE WORLD was moving toward World War II, Soviet leaders and the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (NKID) were paying as much attention to China as to the situation in Europe. By the early 1930s, Moscow no longer had diplomatic relations with China (they had been severed by the Chiang Kai-shek government in 1927, when the Kuomintang dissolved the [first] united front with the Communist Party of China). In 1929, in the wake of armed conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), the Soviet Union closed its consulates in Manchuria (they reopened in 1930 after the Khabarovsk Protocol was signed that ended the conflict). Soviet consulates continued functioning in Xinjiang, which at that time was not controlled by the central Chinese government. A Soviet Embassy and five consulates functioned in the Mongolian People’s Republic, which Moscow treated as an independent state while formally recognizing Chinese sovereignty over it…

THE RUSSIAN QUESTION has always been acute in the young Ukrainian state and provoked a number of disagreements and conflicts. In 2002, a national poll confirmed that 60% of the total Ukrainian population between the ages of 16 and 34 believed that Russians and Ukrainians were two parts of the same people. The Russian language was used in everyday life; it was the native tongue of most of those who lived in the country’s east.¹ On the eve of the 2014 Maidan [uprising], about half of the Ukrainian population was close to Russian culture and spoke Russian. After 2014, Russian culture was gradually oppressed; the new people in power opted for Ukrainization. In 2017-2018 there were 622 Russian-language schools; two years later, in 2019-2020, only 197 remained. It was decided to make Ukrainian the only language of communication, educational programs were adjusted to the new standards, and Soviet and Russian influence was wiped out.

The Russian-speaking academic milieu frequently uses the term “Ukrainization” to characterize the current policy of the Ukrainian state. The policy of so-called korenizatsiya [literally “putting down roots” – Trans.] predated the first efforts to impose the Ukrainian language and culture from above. It was promoted in all Soviet republics formed in the territory of the former Russian Empire, and it was at the same time, in the 1920s, that the term Ukrainization became widely used.²…

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS is one of the most interesting and at the same time difficult social sciences topics to study and analyze. It is extremely dynamic and fluid, with many variables and unknowns. At the same time, its development obeys certain laws and cause-and-effect relationships. At any point in time, international relations are inextricably linked to the preceding stages of history, and without taking that history into account, it is impossible to uncover the true causes of most international affairs phenomena and understand why states and other international political actors behave the way they do.

State diplomacy, both as an institution and as a field where subjective factors play an important role, is a pillar of international relations. Diplomacy, enhanced by in-depth knowledge, professional skills, and a scholarly approach, becomes a necessary element of strategic thinking for a state. The nature of diplomatic activity is, on the one hand, routine and monotonous; on the other hand, it provides space for creativity, extraordinary steps, and decisions. It is both collective and individual; success requires both rigor in following the center’s instructions and the ability to assume responsibility…